Euler%E2%80%93Fermat%20theorem

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1: 24.1 Special Notation

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Euler Numbers and Polynomials

… ►Its coefficients were first studied in Euler (1755); they were called Euler numbers by Raabe in 1851. The notations $E_n$, $E_n\left(x\right)$, as defined in §24.2(ii), were used in Lucas (1891) and Nörlund (1924). …

2: 27.2 Functions

… ►This is the number of positive integers $\le n$ that are relatively prime to $n$; $\varphi \left(n\right)$ is Euler’s totient. ►If $\left(a,n\right)=1$, then the Euler–Fermat theorem states that …The $\varphi \left(n\right)$ numbers $a,a^2,\mathrm{\dots },a^{\varphi \left(n\right)}$ are relatively prime to $n$ and distinct (mod $n$). …Note that $J_1\left(n\right)=\varphi \left(n\right)$. … ►Table 27.2.2 tabulates the Euler totient function $\varphi \left(n\right)$, the divisor function $d\left(n\right)$ ($={\sigma }_0(n)$), and the sum of the divisors $\sigma (n)$ ($={\sigma }_1(n)$), for $n=1(1)52$. …

3: 27.16 Cryptography

… ►Thus, $y\equiv x^r(modn)$ and . … ►To do this, let $s$ denote the reciprocal of $r$ modulo $\varphi \left(n\right)$, so that $rs=1+t\varphi \left(n\right)$ for some integer $t$. (Here $\varphi \left(n\right)$ is Euler’s totient (§27.2).) By the Euler–Fermat theorem (27.2.8), $x^{\varphi \left(n\right)}\equiv 1(modn)$; hence $x^{t\varphi \left(n\right)}\equiv 1(modn)$. But $y^s\equiv x^{rs}\equiv x^{1+t\varphi \left(n\right)}\equiv x(modn)$, so $y^s$ is the same as $x$ modulo $n$. …

4: 24.17 Mathematical Applications

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Euler–Maclaurin Summation Formula

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Euler Splines

… ►are called Euler splines of degree $n$. … ►

§24.17(iii) Number Theory

►Bernoulli and Euler numbers and polynomials occur in: number theory via (24.4.7), (24.4.8), and other identities involving sums of powers; the Riemann zeta function and $L$-series (§25.15, Apostol (1976), and Ireland and Rosen (1990)); arithmetic of cyclotomic fields and the classical theory of Fermat’s last theorem (Ribenboim (1979) and Washington (1997)); $p$-adic analysis (Koblitz (1984, Chapter 2)). …

5: Bibliography

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Tables of $\ln \mathrm{\Gamma }(z)$ for Complex Argument. Pergamon Press, New York.

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External Links:

ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

§5.22(iii).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Some determinants of Bernoulli, Euler and related numbers. Portugal. Math. 18, pp. 91–99.

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External Links:

FullText, MathReview (D. P. Banerjee), ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

§24.14(ii).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Algorithm 683: A portable FORTRAN subroutine for exponential integrals of a complex argument. ACM Trans. Math. Software 16 (2), pp. 178–182.

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Notes:

Double- and single-precision Fortran, maximum accuracy 18S or 14S.

External Links:

ISSN 0098-3500, Document, GAMS (module 683; package TOMS), MathReview, ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

1st item, 1st item.

Encodings:

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A proof that Euler missed: Evaluating $\zeta (2)$ the easy way. Math. Intelligencer 5 (3), pp. 59–60.

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External Links:

ISSN 0343-6993, MathReview (P. Szüsz), ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

(25.6.7).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Numerical Tables for Angular Correlation Computations in $\alpha$-, $\beta$- and $\gamma$-Spectroscopy: $3j$-, $6j$-, $9j$-Symbols, F- and $\mathrm{\Gamma }$-Coefficients. Landolt-Börnstein Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, Springer-Verlag.

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External Links:

ISBN 978-3-540-04218-1

Referenced by:

§34.14.

Encodings:

BibTeX

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6: 24.4 Basic Properties

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§24.4(i) Difference Equations

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§24.4(ii) Symmetry

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§24.4(iii) Sums of Powers

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§24.4(iv) Finite Expansions

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7: 5.22 Tables

… ►Abramowitz and Stegun (1964, Chapter 6) tabulates $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x\right)$, $\ln \mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x\right)$, $\psi \left(x\right)$, and ${\psi }^{\prime }\left(x\right)$ for $x=1(.005)2$ to 10D; ${\psi }^{\prime \prime }\left(x\right)$ and ${\psi }^{(3)}\left(x\right)$ for $x=1(.01)2$ to 10D; $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n\right)$, $1/\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n\right)$, $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)$, $\psi \left(n\right)$, ${\log }_{10}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n\right)$, ${\log }_{10}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n+\frac{1}{3}\right)$, ${\log }_{10}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)$, and ${\log }_{10}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n+\frac{2}{3}\right)$ for $n=1(1)101$ to 8–11S; $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n+1\right)$ for $n=100(100)1000$ to 20S. Zhang and Jin (1996, pp. 67–69 and 72) tabulates $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x\right)$, $1/\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x\right)$, $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(-x\right)$, $\ln \mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x\right)$, $\psi \left(x\right)$, $\psi \left(-x\right)$, ${\psi }^{\prime }\left(x\right)$, and ${\psi }^{\prime }\left(-x\right)$ for $x=0(.1)5$ to 8D or 8S; $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(n+1\right)$ for $n=0(1)100(10)250(50)500(100)3000$ to 51S. … ►Abramov (1960) tabulates $\ln \mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x+\mathrm{i}y\right)$ for $x=1$ ($.01$) $2$, $y=0$ ($.01$) $4$ to 6D. Abramowitz and Stegun (1964, Chapter 6) tabulates $\ln \mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x+\mathrm{i}y\right)$ for $x=1$ ($.1$) $2$, $y=0$ ($.1$) $10$ to 12D. …Zhang and Jin (1996, pp. 70, 71, and 73) tabulates the real and imaginary parts of $\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x+\mathrm{i}y\right)$, $\ln \mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x+\mathrm{i}y\right)$, and $\psi \left(x+\mathrm{i}y\right)$ for $x=0.5,1,5,10$, $y=0(.5)10$ to 8S.

8: 24.2 Definitions and Generating Functions

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§24.2(ii) Euler Numbers and Polynomials

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§24.2(iii) Periodic Bernoulli and Euler Functions

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Table 24.2.1: Bernoulli and Euler numbers.

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$n$	$B_n$	$E_n$
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Table 24.2.2: Bernoulli and Euler polynomials.

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$n$	$B_n\left(x\right)$	$E_n\left(x\right)$
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9: Bibliography D

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On the real roots of Euler polynomials. Monatsh. Math. 106 (2), pp. 115–138.

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External Links:

ISSN 0026-9255, MathReview (H. M. Srivastava), ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

§24.12(ii).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Asymptotic behaviour of Bernoulli, Euler, and generalized Bernoulli polynomials. J. Approx. Theory 49 (4), pp. 321–330.

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External Links:

ISSN 0021-9045, Document, MathReview (Guillermo López Lagomasino), ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

§24.11.

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Irreducibility of certain generalized Bernoulli polynomials belonging to quadratic residue class characters. J. Number Theory 25 (1), pp. 72–80.

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External Links:

ISSN 0022-314X, Document, MathReview (T. Metsänkylä)

Referenced by:

§24.12(iii).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Zeros of Bernoulli, generalized Bernoulli and Euler polynomials. Mem. Amer. Math. Soc. 73 (386), pp. iv+94.

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External Links:

ISSN 0065-9266, MathReview (D. H. Lehmer), ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

§24.12(i), §24.12(iii), §24.16(ii).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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Error analysis in a uniform asymptotic expansion for the generalised exponential integral. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 80 (1), pp. 127–161.

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External Links:

ISSN 0377-0427, Document, MathReview (Eberhard Wagner), ZentralBlatt

Referenced by:

§2.11(iii), §8.20(ii).

Encodings:

BibTeX

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10: 10.31 Power Series

… ►where $\psi \left(x\right)={\mathrm{\Gamma }}^{\prime }\left(x\right)/\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(x\right)$ (§5.2(i)). … ►

10.31.2 $$K_0\left(z\right)=-\left(\ln \left(\frac{1}{2}z\right)+\gamma \right)I_0\left(z\right)+\frac{\frac{1}{4}{z}^2}{{(1!)}^2}+(1+\frac{1}{2})\frac{{(\frac{1}{4}{z}^2)}^2}{{(2!)}^2}+(1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{3})\frac{{(\frac{1}{4}{z}^2)}^3}{{(3!)}^2}+\mathrm{\cdots }.$$

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Symbols:

$\gamma$: Euler’s constant, $!$: factorial (as in $n!$), $I_{\nu }\left(z\right)$: modified Bessel function of the first kind, $K_{\nu }\left(z\right)$: modified Bessel function of the second kind, $\ln z$: principal branch of logarithm function and $z$: complex variable

A&S Ref:

9.6.13

Referenced by:

§10.45

Permalink:

http://dlmf.nist.gov/10.31.E2

Encodings:

pMML, png, TeX

See also:

Annotations for §10.31 and Ch.10

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10.31.3 $$I_{\nu }\left(z\right)I_{\mu }\left(z\right)={(\frac{1}{2}z)}^{\nu +\mu }\sum _{k=0}^{\mathrm{\infty }}\frac{{\left(\nu +\mu +k+1\right)}_k{(\frac{1}{4}{z}^2)}^k}{k!\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\nu +k+1\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\mu +k+1\right)}.$$

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Symbols:

$\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(z\right)$: gamma function, ${\left(a\right)}_n$: Pochhammer’s symbol (or shifted factorial), $!$: factorial (as in $n!$), $I_{\nu }\left(z\right)$: modified Bessel function of the first kind, $k$: nonnegative integer, $z$: complex variable and $\nu$: complex parameter

Referenced by:

§10.31

Permalink:

http://dlmf.nist.gov/10.31.E3

Encodings:

pMML, png, TeX

Correction (effective with 1.1.2):

The Pochhammer symbol now links to its definition.

See also:

Annotations for §10.31 and Ch.10